Cultural Determinants of Terrorism Essay

Orchestrated objectives within well-organized terrorist groups suggest that principles of organizational psychology apply to terrorist organizations, under the cultural influence of each one (Borum, 2004). There is much cause for optimism in understanding terrorist organizations, for as Alder and Gunderson (2008) write, â€Å"Luckily, we have learned that global complexity is neither unpredictable nor random† (p. v). The call for research has never been more pressing. Introduction â€Å"Terrorism is an elusive subject, evading precise political, jurisprudential, and cultural definition† (Oliveri, 2008, p. 49). It depends upon the definition of ‘terrorism’. â€Å"With over 100 definitions, this is not an easy task; there is no common understanding of what constitutes ‘terrorism’; no clear and universally acknowledged definition actually exists† (Franks, 2007, p. 2). The definition Munger (2006) proposes that is used for this paper is, â⠂¬Å"Culture is defined as the set of ‘inherited’ beliefs, attitudes, and moral strictures that a people use to distinguish outsiders, to understand themselves and to communicate with each other† (p. 131). The distinguishing characteristic of ‘them’ and ‘us’ is perhaps the fundamental belief generated within cultures that makes terrorism towards others possible. Whether viewed in terms of extremist Muslim culture or right-wing American culture, cultural identity supports the conflict of ideologies. Ward (2008) says, â€Å"Terrorism has taken the academic world by storm† (p. 248). The Psychology of Terrorism only became a legitimate academic study in 1982; â€Å"terrorism is far from a new phenomenon, traceable to the French Revolution and the Nihilists of 19th Century Russia† (Franks, 2007, p. ). Undoubtedly, it goes much further into the annals of history than the 19th Century, â€Å"the concept of terrorism had no meaning in history until the modern era† (Bratkowski, 2005, p. 764). Prior to modernity, terrorism was so much a part of daily culture it was normal behavior, without a specific word for it. In fact, for most of Christendom, â €Å"humankind has always provided a justification for killing and instilling terror in fellow humans† (p. 764). It is only recently that most cultures have placed a label of immorality on selective murder to achieve political or cultural ends. Our species has a protracted history and prehistory of terrorism. One might wonder why terrorism has â€Å"taken the academic world by storm†. Insights from Psychology â€Å"Terrorist violence most often is deliberate (not impulsive), strategic, and instrumental; it is linked to and justified by ideological (e. g. , political, religious) objectives and usually involves a group or multiple actors/supporters (Borum, 2004, p. 17). Since terrorist objectives originate within multinational organizations, principles of organizational psychology apply to all terrorist organizations, under the cultural milieu of the organization in question. What is now certain is that terrorism is not a psychopathological aberration, as was originally thought in psychoanalytical circles (Crenshaw, 1992). Terrorist organizations are composed of clear-headed individuals, often with advanced university degrees. Merari (1991) collected empirical data on suicide bombers, and found that psychopathology is almost never a factor in a terrorist’s profile. In fact, â€Å"prevalence of mental illness among samples of incarcerated terrorists is as low as or lower than in the general population† (Borum, 2004, p. 34). This is a clear indicator that we are dealing with psychologies of organization, and not groups of crazed sociopaths. Survival of the organization, a tenet of organizational psychology, has clear implications for the terrorist mindset (Post, 1989), even though â€Å"research on the psychology of terrorism largely lacks substance and rigor. While cultural factors are important, much study remains. â€Å"Future research should be operationally-informed; maintain a behavior based focus; and derive interpretations from analyses of incident-related behaviors† (Borum, 2004, p. 3). The main problem with such a venture might be that terrorists are not giving interviews or taking surveys. Borum points out that â€Å"there is a broad spectrum of terrorist groups and organizations, each of which has a different psychology, motivation and decision making structure† (p. 5). This further underscores the need to be on guard against the ‘stereotypical terrorist organization’: there is none. In a terrorist organization, â€Å"two key narcissistic dynamics are a grandiose sense of self and ‘idealized parental imago’. If one can’t be perfect, at least one can be in a relationship with something perfect† (Borum, 2004, p. 9). Association with a world figure such as Bin Laden satisfies this need; this can lead us back to US culture: promulgation and amplifying worldwide terrorism, via the news media. Bin Laden often makes the evening news, and every time he does, his ‘world stature’ is elevated, especially in the min ds of his followers. It the name Bin Laden was unknown, how much less effective would al-Qaeda become? Media has some degree of culpability, if not complicity in promulgating terrorism worldwide by providing free publicity to organizations and their cause. According to Paul Marsden (CPM, 2001, p. 1), â€Å"the amount of media coverage devoted to these events, by television networks and newspapers, correlates positively with the rise in subsequent `copycat’ events. This is darkly consistent with the substantial body of evidence for suicide contagion – the idea that suicides beget suicide. † If distraught teenagers copy Columbine style shootings, how much more are suicide attacks from terrorist cells encouraged by watching the evening news? Unintentionally but effectively eulogizing angry teens and terrorists alike hold moral implications for the major news media, which need addressing by society. Organizational Psychology provides some insight: if a culture perceives it is losing its ability to contribute its share to the world stage, conflict will result (Rahim, 1986; Katz ; Kahn, 1978). Considering that entire cultures may feel they are losing their ability to contribute because of intervention of external cultures upon their own culture is likely one requisite to the creation of worldwide terror organization formation. Cultural factors of extremist Muslim society While many in the West view extremist Muslim terrorism as irrational behavior by deranged individuals, â€Å"it is perfectly possible to understand terrorism as a rational decision problem, if we accept the premise that culture matters† (Munger, 2006, p. 132). â€Å"Islamic societies, not exclusively, but perhaps to a greater extent than most other nations, are committed to an idea of the perfectibility of humans in societies, through moral education and imposition and enforcement of moral law (Sharia) based on the Quran† (p. 142). This religious adherence adds a great deal of resistance to compromise from outside cultures, and bolsters the extremist elements within Islamic society. Much of the cultural foundation of extremist Muslim culture is their unique interpretation of the Quran: â€Å"The contemporary terrorist mentality and culture, which are rooted in absolutist, either-or, good-and-evil world views, resist efforts to negotiate. Accommodation, bargaining, and mutually acceptable compromise are not envisioned as possibilities within many terrorists’ mental framework† (Smelser ; Mitchell, 2002, p. 1). It appears that once a terrorist organization is established, the only ways to eliminate it is either when they accomplish their objectives, to destroy them, or to take away their reason to exist, which will allow Skinnerian extinction to follow over time. The ‘destroy’ method is problematic and costly: how does one destroy an ideology? Islamic terrorists are well-connected using technology; their geographic locality is literally everywhere and nowhere. Culturally-attuned uses of information technology† are a major source of cross-cultural influences in the creation and sustaining of terrorist organizations (Bailey ; Grimaila, 2006, p. 534). Terrorist organizations are expert in spreading and sustaining their ideology around the world. Once indoctrinated into a group, people will generally follow orders, no matter how extreme or violent, as long as the individual perceives that the order was issued from the appropriate authority (Milgram, 1965). Cultural influences caused normal students at Stanford to transform into ‘merciless prison guards’; once given the role and the authority, al-Qaeda recruits mold easily to orders from Bin Laden. Not only do they have a physical authority, which relieves their individual conscience from objecting, but also they further believe that Allah Himself sanctions Bin Laden and themselves in their efforts to establish Sharia law throughout the world (Bailey ; Grimaila, 2006). There is substantial agreement that the psychology of terrorism cannot be considered apart from political, historical, familial, group dynamic, organic, and even purely accidental, coincidental factors† (Borum, 2004, p. 22). Borum also states, â€Å"Significant differences [exist] both in, 1) the nature and level of aggression in different cultures, and 2) aggression can be environmentally manipulated; both findings that argue against a universal human instinct [of violence]† (p. 12). Diamond (20 04) argues that environmental influences are paramount in understanding why cultures are the way they are. The Fertile Crescent, once the cornerstone of agriculture, became radically altered once all the forests were clear-cut, leaving mostly a barren desert environment. It is interesting to note that the foundation cultures which harbored the seeds of al-Qaeda all come from this former environmental paradise. Therefore, while culture probably has the most influence on the creation of terrorist organizations in the short term today, environment certainly has a large degree of impact over the long term, and might have a large impact in the short term via militaristic or political manipulation. For many critics, global or ‘hyper’ terrorism has become an ultimate expression of acutely depressed geopolitical chaos† (Ward, 2008, p. 252). Geopolitical chaos produces environments ripe with opportunity for recruiters toward the cause of terrorism. Without addressing and rectifying the chaotic areas of the world, it is highly doubtful, that global terrorism will end. Cultures th at feel oppressed or depraved on the world stage may rise in rebellion against the oppressing culture(s), with or without religious dictate. Muslim culture is producing the lion’s share of high-visibility terrorists in the world today (Borum, 2004). One way to understand Muslim culture as it relates to the creation of terrorism is to look at Hofstede’s dimensions. Generally, Islamic countries have large inequalities of status, forming a small ruling group, and a large ruled group with limited power. Hofstede (2001) shows, those Arab cultures have large Power Distance (PDI) (80) and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) (68). When these two Dimensions are combined, it creates a situation where leaders have virtually ultimate power and authority. It is not unusual for new leadership to arise from armed insurrection – the ultimate power, rather than from diplomatic or democratic change† (Borum, 2004, p. 44). Virtually the only method available for the downtrodden in Arab society to express their need for change is by armed insurrection. This is a valuable insight into the cultural creation of Arab-based terr orism, possibly the most important one. Naturally, from the ‘terrorists’ point of view they are not terrorists at all but â€Å"freedom fighters†, fighting with their only available means to enact positive change. Does this mean efforts at establishing democracy in Muslim states are likely to fail? Cultural roots run deep, and are resistant to change by outside cultures (Weiten, 2004), so the question of democracy introduced and established by Westerners is a highly speculative venture. Finally, take the case of a female suicide bomber. It was originally assumed that the young woman who committed this act was â€Å"innocent, ignorant, and of questionable morality† (Brunner, 2007, p. 961). It is difficult for Westerners to imagine otherwise. Subsequent interviews revealed that she was educated, showed no signs of emotional disturbance, and was â€Å"as highly intelligent and more independent than other girls in her society, but still fully within the range of normal† (p. 961). The key point is that she was â€Å"fully within the range of normal†, according to the culture that she grew up within. By not understanding her culture, Western culture had labeled her â€Å"innocent, ignorant, and immoral†, overlooking key factors with which to fully understand why a mentally stable young woman would commit such an act, and more importantly, to be able to deal realistically with the rise of extremist terrorism through a lack of cultural understanding. Cultural factors of the United States There is a cultural precedence of powerful nations to label other nations as ‘evil’: a threat to ‘civilization’ (Ivie, 2005). In the U. S. , â€Å"this is a very old cultural theme, deeply ingrained into the political psyche† (p. 56). This cross-cultural mindset of powerful nations is one part in the creation of terrorists in weaker cultures, a type of self-fulfilling prophecy: the call to destroy the ‘barbarians that threaten democracy’ is an ancient one; Greece and Rome had similar ongoing open-ended campaigns against terrorists, as does the U. S. today (p. 55). The main trouble with an open-ended campaign is that it never ends†¦ another cultural perception that needs adjustment on the world stage in order to arrive at peace in the world. Looking at the cultural history of the US, the ‘savage’ has always been the object of distain and genocide, in order to ‘make way for civilization’ (Ivie, 2005). The genocide of indigenous peoples of the North American continent is well documented, even using biological terrorist tactics of germ warfare; giving ‘gifts’ of small-pox laden blankets to Indians without acquired immunity against devastating disease (Diamond, 1997). Oliverio (2008) writes, â€Å"It was also a matter of common sense that the Aryan race was superior. This taken-for-granted reality of Aryan superiority led to the extermination of millions of American Indians, millions of African slaves bound for America, and countless indigenous cultures throughout the world† (p. 21). Powerful cultures that label weaker cultures as savages are a powerful impetus to the creation of terrorism. It is a recent habit of the American Right to wage war against abstractions (Comaroff, 2007, p. 381). The line between metaphorical and real war, blurred beyond recognition, gives rise to such cultural terms as ‘the war against drugs’, ‘the war against poverty’, ‘the war against illegal immigration’ (Sherry, 1995), and has become the standard of cultural mind-set in America today. Again, the US has a â€Å"militarized world-view extended to declaring metaphorical wars on disease, crime, engaging in ‘trade wars’ with foreign competitors, and fighting ‘culture wars’ with one another† (p. 58). â€Å"Culture wars† is the main point in question: how can peace ever prevail if acts of war against culture prevail? Even the Olympic Games that followed 9/11 became a forum for the core Bush Doctrine (Falcous ; Silk, 2005). How does the reduction of civil liberties fare with the response to terrorism? â€Å"Not allowing college professors to speak out against governmental policies associated with the war on terror† (Crowson ; DeBacker, 2008, p. 296) is one form of right-wing authoritarianism that many Americans think needs implementation. A disturbing trend of loss of personal freedoms that some associate with fascism. Taken as a whole, US domestic and foreign policy regarding oil consumption, and support for oppressive regimes, is set aside in deference to critical scrutiny of individual behavior and the forms of ‘moral lassitude’ associated with a culture of dependency† (Hay ; Andrejevic, 2006, p. 344). So at least part of the U. S. cultural mindset is about securing its own economic interests at the expense of decency and fairness on the world stage. Many people think that the U. S. would never have bothered with Iraq if they had no strategic oil supplies, especially in the Middle East and Europe. This belief can only inflame world tensions further. Understanding cross-cultural inter-dependencies A surprising interdependency, regards the Bush Administration itself. According to Kellner (2004), not only Jihadists are responsible for ‘spectacular acts of terror’, but also both Bush administrations. They deployed â€Å"Manichean discourses of good and evil which themselves fit into dominant media codes of popular culture; that both deploy fundamentalist and absolutist discourses† (p. 41). This is extremely similar to the â€Å"contemporary terrorist mentality and culture, which are rooted in absolutist, either-or, good-and-evil world views, resist efforts to negotiate† (Smelser ; Mitchell, 2002, p. 1). The Bush administration openly declares its refusal to communicate with terrorist organizations or states, which is absolutist. We know that incentives flourish within such organizations (Munger, 2006). Incentives usually take two forms: 1) recruit members that are prone to obey and please within a cultural setting (e. g. collectivist rather than individualist cultures), and 2) â€Å"Create a set of incentives that reward loyalty, by giving access to excludable near-public (â€Å"club†) goods† (p. 131). Mohammed Atta reportedly was â€Å"at a strip club spending a lot of money, shouting anti-American slogans, and left a copy of the Quran before he left† (USA TODAY, 2001, p. 1). This incident seems to have fallen under ‘club goods’ instead of operational funds, because it was the night before the hijackings, and such excessive cash was no longer needed. This says nothing of the influence U. S. culture had on Atta, a devout Muslim going to a strip club, one day before he â€Å"meets Allah†. There is no such thing as a ‘terrorist state’, in the absolute sense. Triandis, Bontempo, Villareal, Asai, and Lucca (1988) have shown that national cultures never equate to individual or subgroup cultures, so while a totalitarian governing body may indeed be a terrorist organization, the general populace can in no way be held accountable for the actions of a few. It is a stereotypical mistake to label an entire country as terrorist. It is important to realize that â€Å"both differences and similarities in behavior occur across and within cultures; psychological processes are characterized by both cultural variance and invariance† (Weiten, 2006, p24). Regrettably, â€Å"quite a few nations are culturally reasonably homogeneous† (Hofstede, 1998, p180), and this may mean that a few nations may be mostly extremist in their outlook. Discourses from the Bush administrations paralleled closely to speeches given by Hitler, Pope Urban II, and others: â€Å"an appeal to a legitimate power source external to the speaker; an appeal to the importance of the national culture under attack; the construction of an evil enemy; and an appeal for unification† (Graham, Keenan, ; Dowd, 2004, p. 213). Kellner (2004) feels that â€Å"the disparity between the vast amount of information freely available to all through multimedia sources, and the narrow vision presented on the major news media via television is a travesty†, and a major cultural factor responsible for the deployments of the Bush administrations’ controlled mass media (p. 61). While arguments that ‘freely available news sources from uncontrolled sources’ might suggest this no longer to be a cultural factor, culture by nature takes time to change, and most Americans probably place more credence in the evening news than the newer Internet sources (Kellner, 2003). Another example of how cross-cultural misunderstandings regularly occur between nations: â€Å"when one cultural message sender transmits information to another culture, chances of accurate transmission are reduced† (Alder ; Gunderson, 2008, p. 72), and when nations or organizations refuse to send information between cultures as both the Bush administration and the al-Qaeda organization currently do, virtually no chance of accurate transmission occurs. Stalemate results and wars go on, indefinitely; clear contributors to terrorism. Perhaps nowhere is the question of terrorism more complex than in the European Union: â€Å"European counterterrorism culture is a difficult concept due to the fact that the regional level of analysis encapsulates a range of different national cultures. Europe has always been a rich mixture of various cultures, and ‘terrorism’ is a culturally charged term† (Rees, 2007, p. 220), hence the difficulty in consensus. Conversely, in China, we could expect to find a unified definition of terrorism under the centralized government (Diamond, 1997). While China is suspect of â€Å"using the post-9/11 discourse of counterterrorism to cloak their own domestic priorities† (Rees, 2007, p. 224), most of their counterterrorism efforts are likely to gain support with the Chinese public as being in the accord of the countries best interest: China being a collectivistic nation. â€Å"Terrorists focus their recruitment where sentiments about perceived deprivation are deepest and most pervasive† (Borum, 2004). This helps us to understand why American involvement in Iraq actually helps create recruitment opportunities for al-Qaeda. Destroyed economies, infrastructure, and family support (via killed family members), create extreme deprivation, desperation to right cultural wrongs, and enrage cultural dictates for retribution (Borum, 2004). It even gives insight into where al-Qaeda might be concentrating recruitment efforts in America. For youth torn between two cultures in a foreign land, identity crisis may result from exposure to the foreign culture, and the chiasm between their parent’s cultures: â€Å"radicalism offers simple answers to the big questions they are grappling with† (Ongering, 2007, p. ). The human tendency to stereotype will easily adapt to simple answers rather than grapple with difficult questions (Weiten, 2004). Extrapolated, it may be easier to recruit a terrorist, than to prevent a person from taking up the cause in the first place. Does cultural pressure on a subgroup help to create violent extremists? Muslim communities in America, â€Å"Not only had their religion being p resented incorrectly, but its adherents were being equated with terrorists† (Baker, 2006, p. 302). Considering the degree that Muslim communities in the Western world are subject to intensified scrutiny, and even unwarranted acts of violence against them by US citizenry (Ward, 2008), a good assumption is that many young Muslims will adapt an extremist ideology in response to cultural threat (Sirin ; Fine, 2007), and some of those extremists will turn terrorist. It seems to be a never-ending spiral escalation of one cultural assault upon the other: the ‘Crusades’ continue†¦ It is a real ‘Which came first, the chicken or the egg? ’ question. Which side began this milieu of cultural attack and counterattack? Perceptions run the gamut: â€Å"The terrorist presents a story of heroism and necessary sacrifice. The counter-terrorist presents a counter-narrative of defiance and vengeance, replacing the image of the martyr with that of inhumanity, even bestiality† (Ward, 2008, p. 254). We reminded again of weaker cultures as ‘savage’, and as we have come to see, cross-culturally, nothing could be further from the truth from both extreme perspectives. Another cultural misunderstanding that may have helped to escalate tensions is the perception that the Muslim community in America did not stand up in unison and denounce the acts of 9/11 as atrocious. This initial silent response interpreted by many Americans as tantamount to condoning such acts of terrorism (Munro, 2006). Paradoxically, this lack of public outcry may have been the result of Muslim culture itself, with the majority of Muslims feeling that it was obvious that they had nothing to do with the attacks, and therefore no reason to take a public stand (Munro, 2006). A form of ‘vigilante counter-terrorism’ develops in American culture, which gives rise to anti-Muslim sentiment and acts of violence (Johnson, 2003). One probable contributing factor is termed: â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome† (Pipes, 2006). The perpetrator, â€Å"for all outward appearances, a young Muslim man, well adjusted to Western society, considered friendly; one day, without warning, he acted out an independent Jihad, which injured nine students† (Pipes, 2006). Such unforeseeable and unpredictable behavior influences non-Muslims to stereotype many Muslims as having the same potential toward â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome†. This of course creates an atmosphere of suspicion and mistrust between cultures: how can you tell who the enemy is just by looking at them? Discussion There is no cultural ‘quick fix’ to this pervasive problem confronting the modern world. â€Å"The general policy approach has to be adaptive, opportunistic, and multisided. The conventional problem-solving logic so attractive in American culture—find a problem and then fix it—is of limited utility, and a longer term, more contextualized approach is necessary† (Smelser et al. , 2002, p. 4). For instance, the Global War on Terror (GWOT) as espoused by the Bush Doctrine includes toppling ‘rogue nations’ as part of the effort to thwart terrorism (Borum, 2004). Focusing on ‘nation rebuilding’ of states, that are otherwise subject to deterrent, rather than on organizations that transcend geographic localities and are not subject to deterrent, is a lack of proper cultural understanding of the issues, and will lead to further cultural misunderstandings. It makes sense that if powerful cultures do not make accusations against weaker cultures not understood, or interfere in the sovereign rights of weaker nations, that a large amount of terrorism will fail to manifest by lack of unwanted cultural impetus from foreign powers. One of the biggest troubles seems to be, that powerful countries can arouse their masses which are â€Å"easily pressed into service to rally the nation, quell dissent and effectively inoculate the public against any alternative perspective† (Ivie, 2005, p. 56), the main point being to limit any alternative cultural perspectives as being legitimate relative to one’s own ‘superior’ cultural perspective. This is error. â€Å"An increasingly militarized culture of fear† (p. 9), such as is dominant in the US today, and which has been developing over many decades, cannot reduce the threat of terrorism in the world. Indeed, Muslim culture dictates that retribution be demanded when a family member is taken. Each errant US bomb inevitably creates more ‘terrorists’ (Borum, 2004), cultural ‘deviants’ are created that never would have existed otherwise. Rumors and hundreds of websites have sprung up claiming that FEMA has erected hundr eds of internment camps on American soil is a disturbing part of the changing culture in America today. A Google search of ‘American internment camps’ will pull up hundreds of unsubstantiated claims of such camps, including specific locations; further highlighting the cultural atmosphere of increasing paranoia. Finally, what can help prevent Muslim youth in the U. S. from taking a violent path? According to Sirin and Fine (2007)â€Å"Research that the successful integration of both one’s own culture and the dominant culture, leads to more positive developmental outcomes†¦whereas marginalization, that is disengagement from both cultures, is associated with mental health problems for immigrant youth† (p. 52). Society certainly would do well to address issues of marginalization, in order to help prevent future â€Å"Sudden Jihad Syndrome† (Pipes, 2006). Conclusion While this paper has focused mainly on US and Muslim extremist involvement, state and non-state respectively, it is important to remember that many other states and organizations exist whic h perpetrate terror. Terror is a two way street, with few exceptions. Perhaps the ultimate defense against terrorism is to understand the cultural and cross-cultural causes of it, and with proper knowledge, address the issues at hand. We must avoid stereotypes at all costs, because â€Å"Nearly all terrorists are extremists, but most extremists are not terrorists† (Borum, 2004). â€Å"Long-term orientation versus short-term orientation† (Franke, Hofstede, ; Bond, 1991) may provide insights into which culture holds greater strength in the GWOT. U. S. culture demands immediate results, and has little tolerance for long term strategies, while extremist Islamic culture is bond by the vision of Mohammed, and is prepared to sacrifice for centuries if need be (Borum, 2004). Fortunately, unnecessary warring between cultures may diminish substantially as one of the biggest single benefits of cross-cultural understanding and application of organizational psychological research (Brislan, 1983). â€Å"It is argued that we now live in an age of ‘hyperterrorism,’ where the nature and scale of terrorism has reached a new level, and that the question of ‘How to deal with international terrorism is quickly becoming the defining issue of our age’† (Ward, 2008, p. 248). It is imperative that we make every effort to understand the cross-cultural determinants of terrorism, regardless of cost. Additionally, â€Å"terrorism is a discourse that affects all our lives, and the collateral argument that terrorism somehow validates the occasional abrogation of so many of our most cherished legal principles, is something that should concern all of us† (p. 249). Hogan (2006) offers: â€Å"Due to the logistical and analytical challenges of cross-national comparisons, studies to date have concentrated largely on single nations† (p. 64). While much work remains, understanding the vast scope of cultural interdependencies that help create terrorism is an extremely complex task yet must be undertaken if we are to come to terms with global terrorism. As Hostede (1998) states, â€Å"constructs are products of the mind with which we attempt to understand and predict human behavior in an infinitely complex world†, and all constructs are flawed to some degree. In an infinitely complex world, we will never entirely eradicate terrorism in its many manifestations. Our best hope to eradicate the bulk of organized terrorism is through scientific understanding and conscientious application of rational solutions, freed from cultural bias. â€Å"Culture lies entirely on the â€Å"nurture† side of the ledger, as against â€Å"nature†, or truly nherited traits† (Munger, 2006, p. 134). Solutions to the specter of terrorism will manifest through understanding and responding to such cultural nurture. This paper has posited that understanding other cultures can help to reduce tensions between cultures, which give rise to terrorism and counterterrorism conflicts. As Munger (2006) points out, â€Å"a shared understanding of something that identifies insiders, and excludes outsiders because they do not share this understanding† (p. 133), is perhaps the fundamental commonality between conflicting sides. If we can short-circuit this exclusionary identity concept, by education and promulgate understanding by either, or both sides, and act upon it with responsible communication between parties, then perhaps modern terrorism as we know it will eventually end. It may take many years, because established terrorist organizations are not open to compromise (Smelser ; Mitchell, 2002), but such efforts may play a large part in helping to prevent future recruitment, and help eliminate the need for terrorist organizations within the cultures that originally spawned them; losing their luster they slowly fade from existence.

Economic Impacts Essay

The Attack on the World Trade Centre in Manhattan had happened on September 11, 2001. The attack had led to the destruction of numerous buildings and lost of lives. This had greatly affected not only the citizens of the United States. The incident had also affected the economy of the country. According to the report of Mr. George Kahn (2001) , the vice-president   and economist of Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas, US economic growth had already slowed dramatically. Based on the experiences in the year 1996 to 1999, a growth in the GDP has been experienced. It is only logical to think that GDP will continue to rise in the next few years. However, Real GDP has slowed to a 2.8% rate of growth last year. Unemployment had moved down from 3.9% in th year 2000 to 4.9% in August. The slowdown in the economy had led to unexpected increase in energy prices and re-evaluation of the prospects for corporate earnings. Prices in the stock market have been affected, and consumer spending began to slow down. In early September, prices on energy began to stabilize and consumer spending had hold-up. Although manufacturing activity continued to decline but in a slower rate as compared to what happened in the early part of the year. However, this has all changed after the attack in September 11. 2001. Looney (2002) has used categories to differentiate the different economic impacts of the attack in the United States. His categories were based on two types. First is the nature of the impact and second is the length of time the economy has affected the country. In this paper, the author would use the length of time the impact has on the economy. These effects would be divided into three parts: The short-term impact, the medium-term impact and the long-term impact. Short-term impacts of the economy can be further categorized into two. These are the immediate short-term direct impact and the immediate short-term indirect impact. Looney (2002) had enumerated several short-term impacts after the September 11, 2001 attack. For the immediate short-term direct impact, it was stated that Lower Manhattan of New York had lost an approximate of 30% of its office space because of the attack. Reports stated that an estimate of 200,000 were destroyed or relocated out of New York City. Estimated cost of destruction of physical assets in businesses amounts to $ 14Billion for private business, $ 1.7Billion for the local and state assets and $ 0.8Billion for federal enterprises. Rescue, cleanup operations and other cost related to these two is approximately $11 Billion. Total direct costs as computed by Looney (2002) in the article, is estimated to be at around $27.2 Billion. However, Mr. Alan Hevesi, had considered other factors that was not included in the article of Robert Looney. Hevesi (2001) considered the lost of human capital which is estimated to be at $11 billion. These are the lives of the workers who had been killed during the attack. This figure is based on the expected earnings during the personâ€⠄¢s remaining work life. Indirect short term impacts of the attack are the following: Consensus forecast for the GDP growth of the US economy is lowered by 0.5 percentage points in the year 2001 and 1.2 percentage points in the year 2002. Implied projected cumulative lost from the attack up to the year 2003 is estimated to be half a trillion dollars. Private sector investments went down the same with their inventory levels. The attack had shown the government that an additional investment is needed for the security of the country. It is estimated that an increase of 9.25% in defense spending was used by the government. Firms such as security and information technology had increase in demand. Federal Reserve had lowered the price of credit and and temporarily liquidated their assets to safeguard the integrity of the financial system and save businesses from bankruptcy. Aside from the impacts stated above by Looney (2002), Hevesi included factors such as disabilities and trauma to be at $3Billion, business interruption, training and liability losses to be at $21 Billion, Net Lost Rents of $ 1.05 Billion from both the damaged and destroyed buildings and Lost wages which amounts to $9.6 Billion In the medium term, Looney had defined several sectors that had been affected by the attacks. Five areas were highlighted on his report and these are the Insurance, Airlines, Tourism and other service industries, Shipping, and Defense. Losses of the Insurance industry are estimated to be at $30 to $58 Billion. These losses are the highest record in the history of the country. Primary insurers have increased their premiums and dropped their coverages for terrorism related risk, this in turn had affected other key industries. Strongest impacts of the insurance were seen in the aviation, tourism, transportation, construction and energy generation sectors. Commercial property and liability insurance rates have been raised by 30% on the average. The terrorist had used airplanes in order to trigger the attack on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. This had lead in putting the aviation industry in a weak position. An estimate of 20% decrease on the service orders had been ecperienced by airlines. Government support and airline passenger traffic was below normal and an estimate of 100,000 layoffs has been announced. Employment opportunities which were normally up in October and November fell by 80,000 or an estimate of 8% from the expected. Another sector that has been greatly affected is the tourism and service sector. These include hotels, tours, automobile rentals, travel agencies, and civilian aircraft manufacturers. As stated by Looney (2002), hotels have reported higher vacancy rates and employment in the sector as a whole fell by 58,000 in October and November. Relative Equity Values declined by 15%. Preliminary report of Fiscal Policy Institute in New York (2001) included attendance of people in the Broadway theatres had also decreased.. The Shipping sector was in a way affected by the attack, Maritime shipping rates had increased from 5 to 10 percent on average in the two weeks after the attack. Relative stability of freight rates ,despite the decrease in fuel costs and under-utilized capacity of the ships implied that transportation cost had increased because of the attacks Defense sector had experienced a significant increase on security-related programs in the budget for the year 2003. An additional budget of $48Billion was proposed for national defense. Homeland security budget was also increased from $20 Billion in 2001 to $38 Billion in 2002. An enhancement on the training of first responders which are the fireman, police and rescue workers were done, total preparation amounted to $8 Billion for domestic defense spending. The Fiscal Policy Institute or FPI (2001) included in their report losses on advertising because after the attacks commercial runs on television networks were cut down. FPI (2001) had estimated that there would be a 1,000 reduction in advertising employment and a 3% drop of revenues would be experienced by the advertising sector. Looney (2002), enumerated five effects in the   economy. These effects are higher operating costs, higher level of inventories, higher risk premium, Shift of resources t the military defense, and the shift away from globalization. As stated above, several increase in spending for defense had been experienced by the country, and higher insurance premiums were also done in the industry.   The attacks and also led to longer wait for time activities because several sectors and consumers are already cautious. These three reasons had led economist to say that higher operating costs maybe experienced by the industries in the country. Since businesses had been interrupted because of the attacks, several companies were not able to resume immediately. Businesses may be required to hold larger inventories at scale for fear that their suppliers may not be able to give the materials that they needed on time. An evidence on these was shown in the article of Looney wherein the auto industry production was interrupted because availability   of components were not immediately shipped out because of the delays in the crossing of the US-Canada Borders. The attack may have lead investors to avoid risking their money in businesses. As a result, higher risk premiums may be passed on to businesses in the form of higher interest rates, and lower equity prices. This could also lead to lower equity prices, business investment lowering and smaller capital stocks. The attack had been a terrorism activity. In response to this issue, the government would most likely divert their attention in strengthening the country’s defense through the military. Many resources may be diverted to military use. Research and Development Resources can be also shifted to concentrate on the development of new devices to thwart terrorism activities. Since there had been interruption in the cross-borders of the country, investors may think twice in investing abroad and concentrate on domestic investments. During this time, the â€Å"anthrax† scare is already being shown in the media. Several investors and the government may have taken this into consideration as such higher cost could be experienced because the businesses and the government would closely inspect items going in and out of the country. In the Chicago GSB magazine, the authors have included economic recovery for the country. According to Kevin Murphy, part of the debate team, expected recovery of the economy may occur within 15 months after the attack. Measured loss in the economy is estimated to be at 0.6% of the total asset of the country. Judging from the percentage of economic loss, the percentage shows a very minimal figure. Gary S. Becker, another part of the team had also stated that the country had retained basically all the human capital prior to the attack and because of this, the US economy would recover fully. It has been 6 years since the attack of the terrorist in the United States. Prior to the attack the economy of the country is already in the decline stage and this had been accelerated by the attack in the World Trade Center. Although the attack had greatly affected the economy, it is necessary to think on the before situation of the country because that situation had also affected the impact of the attack. The economy of the United States had already recovered since then, however, same security measures are still being by the country to address the issue of terrorism.

Discuss individual differences in musical functioning with regard to social and biological influences.

Introduction Deutsch (2012) describes music as an art that entails thinking with sounds. Music is played all over the world in churches, homes, funerals and many other places. It is part of humanity introduced at birth with lullabies and continues throughout the course of life up to death with the funeral march (Hallam, Cross & Thaut, 2016). It is a language that resembles speech in many aspects and has no borders. Sense of sound and rhythm are essential elements of musical functioning (Gruszka, Matthews, & Szymura, 2010). Music is significantly influenced by culture in terms of content and style. As such it evokes the same emotions within members of the same culture. It has two main components (rhythm and pitch) that it uses to pass the intended message and one has to be able to understand the two in order to appreciate music (Jones, Fay & Popper, 2010). Human beings are born with ability to understand and appreciate music and that is why young children appreciate lullabies. However the music p otential and preferences vary from one person to the other. People have different musical preferences and this influences the amount of time and resources that they spend listening to music. This study investigates the individual differences in musical functioning with regard to social and biological influences. Individual differences in Musical Functioning Individual differences in musical functioning or musicality refer to the differences in the strength of music preference (Kern & Humpal, 2012). These differences are among the most intricate psychological issues in music. An individual may be fine without music while another one may need music so much so that he or she would use huge resources to attend music concerts. The source of such differences is a major concern to psychologists. According to Deutsch (2012), the strength of music preference is a function of the role that music plays in the life of an individual. People use music for different purposes like regulating their mood and emotions, promoting self-awareness, communicating, fostering social relations, distractions, and physiological arousal. Music plays an important role in the lives of many people across the world, and many people depend on music for different purposes. The availability of music on portable devices has increased the use of music with many people making it an ubiquitous companion (Theorell, 2014). Therefore music has a profound effect on the lives of many individuals as it influences their thinking, feelings, behaviour and perception. These factors influence the lives of individuals depending on the level of dependence on music and the specific type of music (Haas & Brandes, 2009). As such it is important to ascertain the factors that influence music preference. Individual differences in musical functioning belong to an area in psychology that still remains largely unexplored (McPherson, 2016). People like certain artists, tunes, and styles more than the others. The other individuals also have different musical preferences. This is what is termed as style/genre preferences under music preference. In addition to this, individual differences also exist in terms of the extent to which people listen to music. The extent to which people love and enjoy music differs from one individual to the other (Gruszka, Matthews & Szymura, 2010). The knowledge on why people form preferences on certain types of music still remain fragmented partly because music plays different roles in the lives of people (Theorell, 2014). This is what is termed as the strength of preference under musical preference. The major issue of concern to psychologists is the source of these individual differences in strength and genre/style. Strong music preference is an indication th at an individual spends a lot of time listening to music, going to concerts and buying music. The decision to invest time and money to listening to music is a sign that music is useful to the lives of these people. Individual differences in musical functioning are a multifaceted phenomenon that has continuously eluded psychologists, researchers and musicologists (McPherson, 2016). However, some factors that affect musical functioning have been identified and they include exposure, musical characteristics, genre and personality. The factors that affect musical preference can be grouped into two broad categories namely extrinsic and intrinsic factors. The intrinsic factors are inherent and they include melody, structure and timbre. The extrinsic factors on the other hand include social influence, personality and emotions. Social influence on Musical Functioning Social influence is one of the factors that influence the development of individual preferences in music. This starts at the adolescence stage and continues late into adulthood (Zelazo, 2013). Adolescents often have a strong desire to do the same things that their peers are doing in order to belong. They also tend to dislike the things that their peers dislike. As such they will tend to like the same music that their peers like (Theorell, 2014). They listen to music to create an impression, develop self-image and please their friends. According to McPherson (2016), the teenagers often desire to identify themselves with certain groups that they consider as being â€Å"cool† and distance themselves with those that they regard as being â€Å"old-fashioned†. Therefore they tend to develop musical preferences that are similar to members of their group and avoid those of the other groups that they regard as â€Å"not being cool†. This implies that musical preferences are partly created for the purpose of serving a function of group differentiation (Damon & Lerner, 2006). According to Juslin & Sloboda (2010), individuals often tend to like the music that was popular during the years that they reached maturity age. The music preference developed at this point is often a function of the songs that are popular among the friends. However, the events that occur in late adolescence and early adulthood often shape the music preference for the rest of adulthood. When individuals first leave home and start being independent, they are often influenced by their peer groups. They spend a lot of time with their peers and tend to like what their peers like and dislike what their peers dislike (Damon & Lerner, 2006). They will like the same songs as they go to concerts together and spend most of their free time doing the same things. For instance the people who fail to acquire higher education tend to like songs that depict a care free attitude to justify their condition. Therefore social perceptions significantly influence the type of music preferred by people. Acc ording to the social learning theory, people learn through observation (Lehmann, Sloboda, & Woody, 2007). When people are rewarded for certain behaviours like listening to a certain genre of music, others tend to learn from it and are likely to imitate the behaviour in order to reap the same benefits. People tend to use music socially as a way of reinforcing their self-image. For instance conservative people are more inclined to listen to music that is conventional. Furthermore, people use music to communicate to the world by expressing their ideal self-image. The preferences of society may increase or inhibit the spread of certain music genres thereby influencing their potential to be preferred by individuals (Feezell, 2008 and Gruszka, Matthews & Szymura, 2010). For instance when it was discovered that Mozart music positively affected spatial IQ , more people started listening to classical music. This exposure increase the preference for classical music as it was considered esse ntial for children (Hallam, Cross & Thaut, 2016). This indicates the power of society to influence music perception and preference. Therefore the influence of society is one of the most significant factors that influence individual music preferences. The type of music that people are exposed to from childhood is highly dependent on what the society considers popular and appropriate. For instance the mainstream media may prefer playing certain music over the others thereby influencing the preference of individuals. Biological influence on Musical Functioning Music Cognition A series of processes is often activated when listening to music; these processes include melody recognition, memory of the music, recognising the lyrics and emotional response (Lehmann, Sloboda, & Woody, 2007). These basic processes are often integrated by complex mechanisms in the brain where various neural circuits take part simultaneously and some in succession. Identifying the specific tasks involved in processing music and the various interactions requires theoretical models. According to the functional architecture model proposed by Peretz and Coltheart, perception of monophonic tunes is organised by two independent systems working simultaneously (Sloboda, 2004). The melodic system aids in processing melody whereas the temporal system processes tempo. The melodic system processes all information on melody and differentiates the two main components (i.e. note and intervals). All the perception mechanisms are required for processing melodic contour. Melodic processing is done in right superior temporal gyrus (Lehmann, Sloboda, & Woody, 2007). Both the melodic and temporal systems work in coordination with each other and as such a damaged brain may lose its ability to perceive music. Both the melodic and temporal systems relay information to musical lexicon to generate musical repertoire. Musical lexicon includes music repertoire and has a perceptual representation of all the things that an individual has be exposed to (Kern & Humpal, 2012). Furthermore, it also contains a memory that stores new music to aid in the recognition of melodies that are both familiar and non-familiar. As such if damage occurs to the musical lexicon, an individual becomes unable to perceive familiar melodies or even record new ones. Information from the musical lexicon is often relayed extemporaneously or immediately after stimulus reception to different areas depending on the required action (Haas & Brandes, 2009). Phonological lexicon is often activated to aid in the retrieval of lyrics, phonological and articulation prepares an individual for singing, motor functions are responsible for producing music, and the multimodal associative memories are used for retrieving information that is not musical (Jones, Fay & Popper, 2010). The perceptual modules are linked to the memory processes and emotional pathways to aid in music recognition and emotional experience. Non emotional processing and emotional processing are independent and as such damage to one may not damage the other. Any impairment to these connections often leads to difficulties in being able to integrate musical processes. Influence of Biological Factors on Individual Differences According to Sloboda (2004). , music has rarely been studied from the biological perspective as it is mostly perceived as a function of culture. However, biological factors significantly influence musical preferences (Feezell, 2008). The ability of an individual to process and appreciate music is dependent on cognitive functions. Individual differences in self-perception and personality influence musical preference. Therefore people may opt to like music that will allow them to express themselves to the others on how they would like to be perceived. Moreover, individual differences influence the purpose for which people listen to music (Zelazo, 2013). One of the reasons why people listen to music is to regulate their emotions and help them cope with the daily challenges in life. The differences in musical preference and reasons for listening to music are indications that intelligence and personality partly influence how people use music. Personality and intelligence influence the typ e of music people listen to, how often they listen to it and the reasons for listening to music (Sloboda, 2004). For instance the intellectuals like those with high IQs are more inclined to like conventional/ reflective music and as such are likely to use it for their intellectual purposes rather than for emotional consumption (Juslin & Sloboda 2010). This is because of their higher cognitive ability. This is clearly noticeable in their preference for jazz or classical music not because they do not elicit emotions but because the complexity of the genre is more inclined to suit the interests of people seeking experiences that are intellectually stimulating. On the other end are extraverts who may rely on music to stimulate their activity level when carrying out monotonous tasks like doing dishes or jogging. This implies that the role music plays in the life of an individual is partly determined by the level of arousal (Lilienfeld, et al 2011). This is particularly evident for those with high or low level of arousal average. The interference caused by background music on cognitive processes is higher in introverts than extraverts (Rickard & McFerran, 2012). Damon & Lerner (2006), claim that the association between musical use and other traits remain largely unexplored although some relationship may be expected. For instance people who suffer from emotional instability and regularly experience negative emotions are more likely to use music to regulate their emotions. Cognitive research has established that these people listen to music more for the purpose of managing their emotions (Rickard & McFerran, 2012). Furthermore, they are more sensitive to the emotions elicited by music and as such find music essential for regulating their emotions. Conscientious people on the other hand react differently to music. Conscientious people are those that have traits which are inversely correlated to psychoticism and creativity (Lilienfeld, et al 2011). Conscientious people are less likely to use music for regulating their emotions as they are likely to use it for other purposes. Conclusion The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of biological and social factors on individual musical functioning. The findings show that individual musical preferences and use of music is influenced by both social and biological factors. The social factors mostly influence the type of music people prefer to listen to whereas the biological factors influence the reasons for listening to music. The major social factors that influence the choice of music that people listen to are peers and the society as they determine the kind of music that is played regularly. The biological factors on the other hand influence the purpose for which people listen to music. The purpose for which people listen to music is closely associated with the frequency of listening to music than the choice of music (Hallam, Cross & Thaut, 2016). Therefore biological factors are also responsible for the amount of time and resources people spend to listen to music. However, it is important to note that bot h the biological and social factors significantly contribute to the individual differences in musical functioning. References Damon, W. & Lerner, R. M., (2006). Handbook of child psychology. Hoboken, N.J: John Wiley & Sons. Deutsch, D. (2012). The psychology of music. London : Academic Press. Feezell, J. T. (2008). Stereotype: The influence of music preferences on political attitudes and behaviour. Santa Barbara, Calif.: University of California, Santa Barbara. Gruszka, A., Matthews, G., & Szymura, B. (2010). Handbook of individual differences in cognition: Attention, memory, and executive control. New York: Springer. Hallam, S., Cross, I., & Thaut, M. (2016). The Oxford handbook of music psychology. Oxford : Oxford University Press Haas, R., & Brandes, V. (2009). Music that works: Contributions of biology, neurophysiology, psychology, sociology, medicine and musicology. Wien: Springer. Jones, M. R., Fay, R. R., & Popper, A. N. (2010). Music perception. New York: Springer. Juslin, P. N., & Sloboda, J. A. (2010). Handbook of music and emotion: Theory, research, applications. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kern, P., & Humpal, M. E. (2012). Early childhood music therapy and autism spectrum disorders: Developing potential in young children and their families. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers Lehmann, A. C., Sloboda, J. A., & Woody, R. H. (2007). Psychology for musicians: Understanding and acquiring the skills. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Lilienfeld, S. O., Lynn, S. J., Ruscio, J., & Beyerstein, B. L. (2011). 50 Great Myths of Popular Psychology: Shattering Widespread Misconceptions about Human Behavior. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons. McPherson, G. (2016). The child as musician: A handbook of musical development. Oxford : Oxford University Press Rickard, N. S., & McFerran, K. (2012). Lifelong engagement with music: Benefits for mental health and well-being. Hauppauge, N.Y: Nova Science. Sloboda, J. (2004). Exploring the musical mind: Cognition, emotion, ability, function. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Theorell, T. (2014). Psychological health effects of musical experiences: Theories, studies and reflections in music health science. London: Springer Zelazo, P. D. (2013). The Oxford handbook of developmental psychology. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

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To say the word Romanticism is to say modern art- that is intimacy Essay Example for Free

To say the word Romanticism is to say modern art- that is intimacy Essay Blake and Wordsworth were both Romantic poets yet their views of London are opposed to each other. What are these conflicting visions of the same city and how do they differ from one another? To say the word Romanticism is to say modern art- that is intimacy, spirituality, colour, aspiration towards the infinite, expressed by every means available to the arts. Charles Baudelaire Romantic poets were preoccupied with the idea of the pastoral idyll; a rural landscape where man was spiritually and physically at one with nature. These Pastoral fantasies typically invoked Pagan deities and ideology. Romanticism, according to Baudelaire is colourful and lively. Blake and Wordsworth are both Romantic poets yet their views of London, as portrayed in their poems; Westminster and London, are very different. Wordsworths poem Westminster has a joyful, exultant tone towards London and the diction could be considered colourful and spiritual. However, Blakes poem London has a pessimistic tone, more typical of a Romantic poet. Blakes London shares a view which is expected from a Romantic as the Romantics did not want industrialisation of Great Britain to occur. The negative effects of the Industrial Revolution were especially prominent in London, so this miserable, urban landscape is anathematic to Blake. Romantics wanted the countryside to remain untouched and bucolic. The gloomy diction in London shows this funereal tone. Cry of fear, marks of weakness, marks of woe, hapless Soldiers sigh and blights with plagues the Marriage hearse are all examples of the diction used to build a sense of vulnerability and repulsiveness in London. The perspective that Blake uses also shows that he is projecting his own Romantic feelings onto London. He uses the first person, I repeatedly throughout the poem and also opens with it. For example, I wander, I meet and I hear. This illustrates that his view of London is subjective. The poem is also written in the present tense and this gives the sense of living the experience with the narrator. Thus the poem seems more immediate and intimate. The imagery used in Blakes poem is also depressing and there are many examples of aural, tactile and visual imagery. The marks in every face he meets are examples of visual imagery. He uses words such as marks and every repeatedly and this stresses the ubiquity of misery and moral decrepitude in the city. Examples of the aural imagery that Blake uses are cry of every man, cry of fear and the mind-forgd manacles I hear. These aural images convey the negative effects and emotions that can be found within the people of London. The tactile image of the mind-forgd manacles is also particularly interesting as it is an example of figurative language rather than literal. It is a metaphor for the restrictions or constraints that are placed on people, either by societys expectations and demands or perhaps by themselves. It appears that Blake suggests that people in London are manacled by their own moral weakness. During the Victorian period, men who paid prostitutes were disgraced, not only for the moral reasons of committing a sin, but for the fact that they may have contracted a venereal disease such as gonorrhoea or syphilis. The marks which Blake relates to, such as the marks of woe may be moral weaknesses that men would have been ashamed to be associated with, for example when paying a prostitute for sexual pleasure. However, these marks may also have been literal scars from diseases they had caught. In the last stanza, Blake uses the word midnight. This has dark connotations to it and gives the sense of an evil atmosphere. Blake also adds to this wicked atmosphere in the lines, How the youthful Harlots curse/Blasts the new-born Infants tear as he uses diction such as Harlot, curse and Infants tear. These lines also inform the reader about the harlot and her baby. The curse which Blake relates to could be infecting of the harlots baby with gonorrhoea. This is shown as her baby has a tear in her eye and probably has a problem with it, a symptom of gonorrhoea. In the last line, Blake writes And blights with plagues the marriage hearse. This line suggests that the city is married to death as it uses the oxymoron marriage hearse. This is a conflation of two opposed ideas since a hearse is associated with a funeral because it carries a coffin. Blake may be implying that the city is married to death, or is doomed since the majority of infants in the city are possibly associated with venereal disease. This is shown as he uses the word most when discussing the most common thing that he sees in the streets of London. However, these lines could be considered ambiguous since Blake may be telling us of what he hears in the streets, for example, a Harlot cursing, or swearing at her baby when it cries. London is divided into four stanzas of four lines each and has an alternate rhyme scheme. The rhythm is rather constrained and this gives the impression that the poet is narrating the story as he wanders thro' London, this further emphasises the intimacy. In each stanza there is one main idea which develops the overall motion that London is a corrupt, morally decrepit city. In the first stanza, the idea of London being a charterd city is explored. Blake says that the streets and the River Thames in London are charterd. It could be interpreted that he believes the city has been hired and brought up by commerce and through money. In the second stanza, Blake attempts to show the unhappiness in the city and the depressing effect it has on people by using the word cry repeatedly whilst in the third stanza he writes about how the institutions are corrupted such as the palace. This is shown in the lines The hapless soldiers sigh/Runs in blood down Palace walls. One possible interpretation of the word palace is that it is a metonymy for the government. Blake may be stating that the hapless soldiers have been sent to die while trying to gain power for the British Empire. These lines are also a powerful fusion of light and sound and contain examples of both aural and visual imagery, for example hapless soldiers sigh and runs in blood down palace walls. In the third stanza, Blake implies that the church is becoming corrupted or is blackning, either literally by the pollution that the city is creating or figuratively as it stands by and watches the innocent youths being exploited, such as the chimney sweepers, and the abuse of soldiers. However, the line Every blackning church appals could be considered ambiguous, since the phrase Church appals suggests that it is disgusted by the corrupted institutions, such as the Palace but does not have the power to take much action against them or simply does not want to irritate the palace. Therefore, Blake most likely wants the palace to hear his concerns that he is voicing, which he believes many other people in London share. This idea is reinforced by the fact that in this stanza, if the first letter of every word, on every line is taken, the word HEAR can be made, this also highlights the aural imagery used in this stanza. The word appals may also echo the largest symbol of religious power in London, St Pauls Cathedral and this suggests that Blake is questioning why the church has not spoken out against the government. Unlike the third, the fourth stanza is focused on the future of London. This is because the infant described has a future and eventually the infants in London will become adults who will have to take part in the daily running of the city. However, unlike Blake and other Romantics, Wordsworths Westminster has a surprisingly optimistic tone for a poem written by Romantic. This joyful tone is shown in the diction and imagery he uses. Such as, beauty of the morning, sun more beautifully and calm so deep are all examples of the lauding diction that Wordsworth uses. His exultant view towards the city is also shown in the form in which his poem is constructed. The rhythm is an iambic pentameter and the first eight lines have a rhyme scheme which is ABBAABBA, an octet, then the last six lines have a different rhyme scheme which is CDCDDC, a sestet. This octet and sestet suggests his powerful feelings towards London as it is a sonnet, and sonnets are usually associated with love and desire. In the octet, Wordsworth tells us in detail what he sees and introduces his idea of London being so touching. However, in the sestet; he develops this idea and attempts to unify Londons landscape with the beauty of the natural world, Wordsw orth also informs the reader about what he feels, rather than what he sees. The images that Wordsworth uses also show the rhapsodic tone of the poem as shown in the line a sight so touching in its majesty. The poet uses the word touching in order to convey the uncomplicated strength of his perception, touch being the most direct of the senses. In the opening three lines Wordsworth challenges any doubters that do not believe London looked so perfect at this time. This is shown in the argumentative punctuation he uses and he writes that: Earth has not anything to show more fair:/Dull would he be of soul who could pass by/A sight so touching in its majesty. In these lines, Wordsworth is praising the city and claiming that there is nothing more fair on earth than London on this particular day. He also criticises any soul or person who could ignore a sight so great in majesty and beauty. The fact that Wordsworth opens with these powerful lines of adoration sets the atmosphere in the poem and also shows the reader how beautiful the city looked. He uses the words majesty and soul since these have religious connotations connected with them. The word majesty could be associated with the King or Queen; who was traditionally appointed by God, this makes the city seem almost royal or God-like. This diction and the tone of the poem, along with the examples of personification he uses, make it seem that Wordsworth is almost having an epiphany due to the spiritual intensity of the diction he uses. The words by and majesty are also particularly interesting as although there is not a strict aural rhyme, there is a sight rhyme which means that the rhyme scheme is not disrupted. Unlike Blake in London, Wordsworth uses personification to eulogize the city, this can be seen when he says that This city now doth, like a garment, wear/The beauty of the morning; silent, bare. As Wordsworth uses the simile like a garment, this personifies the city. Wordsworth says that the city wears the beauty of the morning, it could be interpreted that the city and the morning contrast so perfectly that they seem to be one with each other, but may also just be an example of Wordsworth attempting to reunite the urban area with nature. There is a similar example of this when Wordsworth is seeking to reconcile the urban sprawl with the bucolic scenes that a Romantic values above all else. This is why the city is described in natural terms and why Wordsworth sees the city merging seamlessly with the countryside beyond: Ships, towers, domes, theatres, and temples lie/Open unto the fields and to the sky. Wordsworth also lists the ships, towers domes (and) theatres and this gives the impression of him looking across a horizon. The word lie also gives the sense that the ships, towers domes (and) theatres rest grandly, but gently on the horizon as though they are blanketed in their own majesty. Unlike Blake, this is an example of Wordsworth studying and appreciating the city and its physical features, rather than the people who live in it. Wordsworth has an objective view of the city as he is literally elevated on a bridge, while Blake has a more detailed perspective which does not allow him to realize the true beauty of the of London, since he is walking through the streets. Blake seems to be immersed in this anathematic landscape, the emotional problems of the people in the city and the government who live there. Another image that Blake uses acts on our sense of smell. He describes the air as being smokeless and this destroys the idea of London being a polluted city covered by smog, which was caused by the many factories. It is surprising for a Romantic to write this as the Romantics were a reaction to the industrial revolution and one would expect that a Romantic would not speak highly of an industrialised city, such as London. However, this leads the reader to believe the poem was written in the early morning, when the sun was rising since the very houses (seemed) asleep and the factories had not yet opened. Wordsworth also uses other examples of personification and one of these is shown when he says Never did sun more beautifully steep/In his first splendour, valley, rock, or hill. The poet personifies the sun by relating to it with the word his. The personification that Wordsworth uses is an example of figurative, not literal language. Wordsworth also leads the reader to believe that he has never seen such a perfect sunrise and that it is equal to or more than a sunrise in a rural landscape. Another example of Wordsworth personifying something in nature by referring to it as his is when he tells the reader that The River glideth at his own sweet will. This not only personifies the river but it deifies it adding evidence to the poets pagan sensibility. This is because many Romanticists were connected with paganism as they believed in the worship of natural Gods, for example the Gods of Sun and Water. This line also makes the river seem as though it flows freely, peacefully and without being forced, Wordsworth further emphasises this serene atmosphere when he says neer saw I, never felt, a calm so deep! This gives the impression that the city is a peaceful place. Wordsworth also uses other techniques to praise London apart from personification. On the last line, the poet uses a metaphor to describe London. He says And all that mighty heart is lying still! The mighty heart is a metonymy for London and he describes the city as being still, this further leads the reader to believe that this is set in the early morning when even the very houses seem asleep. This adds further evidence that London was calm and tranquil at this particular moment. Although it seems unusual for a Romantic to write such an optimistic poem about London, the specific time, date and place: Composed Upon Westminster Bridge, September 3, 1802 is a message to the reader that the poet remains a Romantic yet could not help but succumb to this particularly powerful vision of beauty. By creating such a precise title, Wordsworth attempts to explain that any Romantic would have felt the same way and therefore, it is not meant to be unexpected; he attempts to explain that this experience was an anomaly. Although it seems that Blake only saw a certain, lower class part of London where soliciting and disease thrived alongside especially harsh working conditions for children, Blakes poem, London is typical of a Romantic poet who was opposed to the Industrial Revolution and therefore, this justifies the reason for him writing such a negative poem, since the Romantics were preoccupied with the idea of a bucolic landscape.

Tourism Product Analysis And Tourism Operations Management Tourism Essay

Tourism Product Analysis And Tourism Operations Management Tourism Essay My business has been created on the basis of knowing that Scotland is one of the most internationally known countries for its culture and beautiful scenery. Its based on a coaching holiday for 5 nights, 6 days that will be suitable for people who enjoy scenery, touring, culture and heritage. It will be run by a medium sized company located in Edinburgh that is called Saltire Tours and will be aimed at European tourists. Reasons for setting the business in Edinburgh are that its the capital of Scotland and has some fantastic history for all to see. This report will be a tourism product analysis of what the business has to offer and what factors will affect the operational side of things. PEST analysis, Competitors and Consumers are all important and will be explained thoroughly as to what and how they will affect the business. This research report will look into the factors that could affect demand for coaching holidays to Scotland from the European Market. It is based on a coaching holiday run by a medium sized company based in Edinburgh that is called Saltire Tours. On completion, the report will be an analysis of the external environment and a product analysis to identify and justify the key features of the product in which the product will operate. Factors being analysed will include Political, Environmental, Social and Technological (PEST) and will show how they impact both positively and negatively on the Coach Tour Company succeeding. A competitor analysis will also be carried out to evaluate and discuss what kind of threat (if any) that may pose to the tour/programme. Another part of this report will include findings for a consumer analysis to determine the Market overall for the Coach Tour Company. The product itself will be given in detail to explain the key features and why it should be introdu ced in the tourism industry. Pest Analysis Factors that may affect Demand for coach holidays in Scotland involve: Political Environmental Social Technological Political factors that may affect coach tours could be recent terrorist attacks in Britain, which occurred in Glasgow Airport the 30th June 2007 and London 7th June 2005. Author Chris Greenwood (2008) wrote about the man who was behind the attacks Abdulla realised his mission had failed, he dressed in a red and white headscarf for the final suicide attack on Glasgow Airport. Another problem was the Icelandic Volcanic episode in April which closed European airspace. These incidents could put people off travelling to the UK, which would affect Scottish Coach Tours as they are based in Scotland. Higher levels of security and regulations are now put in place at airports, which is more time consuming for travellers, and its more inconvenient causing people to be impatient when travelling. Also inflation rates in the UK are pushing up prices for visitors such as fuel costs and 17.5% VAT which would affect Coach Tours as they use Coaches for taking their tourists around Scotland. The Coach Company will be a member of the Green Tourism Business Scheme as it will help encourage the tourism business to be environmentally friendly. The Coach tour will benefit from this as it will have a positive effect on visitors booking up for tour packages as visitors are now very conscious of the environment and will appeal to eco-conscious visitors especially. Social factors could involve the fact that European visitors find touring holidays very popular in the category of different holidays (see appendix 1) which is beneficial to the company as we specialise in Coach Tours in Scotland. Also another social factor could be the outbreak of Swine Flu that has hit Scotland and various other places throughout the UK, this may put people off travelling causing the tourism industry to suffer. A positive social factor could be that Scotland has a lot of historic and cultural attractions that people overseas would love to visit; this will encourage more people to visit Scotland meaning a possible increase of consumers for Saltire Tours as we specialise in culture tours. Technological factors could affect Saltire Tours due to the Internet now making it possible to book directly with tour operators which will be a positive as it saves paying the Travel Agent commission. Saltire Tours will have their own website and E brochures. Also there are new developments in aircraft technology, which cuts down travelling time being a positive for the International visitors coming to Scotland for a Culture Tour of Scotland. There are more comfortable coaches for touring these days with TVs, toilets, and internet facilities on board the coaches which we will take on board and provide our visitors with luxury coaches during their time with us. Competitor Analysis Benchmarking We have looked at two other Tour Companies that are in the similar market. The Analysis of each company compared to ours will help us find out the positives and negatives of our business and what we can do to improve the Culture Coach Tour through other competitors. Haggis Adventures Their tours include an adventure with like-minded travellers; transport and a tour guide. Saltire Tours will include Transport, Blue Badge Guides, and Accommodation, Food, Excellent Customer service and First class attractions as a package. Haggis Adventures dont organise everything for your tour, you have to make your own accommodation arrangements, where to eat and you might not visit some of Scotlands finest attractions. This is definitely a chance for our business to introduce a bigger and better package for tourists that want to relax and have a great time knowing that everything is going to run smoothly and there wont be any stress as everything is arranged. Also Haggis Adventures are more for the younger generation and since the highest proportion of holidaymakers visiting Scotland are in the 20 to 60-age range they would enjoy Saltire Tours better as our tour is suitable for that age category. Saltire Tours will also specialise in Tours whereas Haggis Adventures doesnt, this will be a strength to Saltire Tours. However, a weakness for Saltire Tours is that Haggis Adventures have been running for 5 years and have experience in this field of tourism whereas Saltire Tour is just starting up as a brand new product. Moray Tours Moray Tours in Scotland offer quality, flexible culture tours for up to six people. Whereas Saltire Tours will offer quality culture tours for up to 20 people which is a strength in the tourism Industry as Saltire Tours can offer much more to the Tourists in a way smaller tour companies cant. Their tours only start in Elgin whereas Saltire Tours will be very flexible and can pick visitors up from wherever the tour group suits which is another strength for Saltire Tours. A strength that both Moray and Saltire Tours share is the quality of the tour guides on their coaches and the comfortable coaches they both use. A threat to Saltire Tours could be that Moray Tours is well known and this could affect Saltire Tours business. Also on their website, there is no mention of a price for Moray Tours whereas Saltire Tours gives a package price for the whole tour making it stress free throughout the holiday. Consumer Analysis The market size for our business will be relatively big as we will be aiming our tours at the whole of Europe. It has been found that specifically German and Italian tourists will be interested in our tours as Germany is the highest ranked in terms of trips, bed nights and expenditure, where its  £187million figure is double the next ranked: Italy (Visit Scotland). Factsheets on these countries will be sourced at the end of the report (see appendices 23) Notice our target market (overseas) In June 2010 to August 2010, the seasonally adjusted number of visits by overseas residents to the UK increased by 6 per cent to 7.6 million, when compared with the previous three months. Associated spending by overseas residents on visits to the UK increased by 7 per cent to  £4.4 billion (National statistics). Our coach tour company will focus on these months on advertising to attract large numbers of tourists seeing as these are the most popular months for our target market. Visits from Europe have increased from 16.1 million in 2000 (a 37 per cent increase) and are now approximately the same as in 2000. (Office for national Statistics 2009) Also 22.1 million of the total 29.9 million visits to the UK in 2009 were made by air. (Office for national Statistics 2009) Therefore our consumers will be travelling mostly by air to Scotland which will be included in the package price. This will be beneficial to Saltire Tours as we will be able to use SGIT fare block on a basis, which will be the ideal scheduled airline for Saltire Tours visitors to fly with, as its a flexible duration of 5 nights, which SGIT caters for. Product Analysis Description of basic product offering and product features Our Coach Tour Company has constructed a 5 nights, 6 days Tour suitable for people who enjoy scenery, touring, culture and heritage. Scotland has been one of the most internationally known countries for its culture. As our country has developed over the many hundreds of years, it has developed a culture that is both interesting and fascinating. Saltire Tours have taken time to develop a coach tour suitable for the International visitors that will meet all their holiday needs. They will enjoy living in some top class hotels, these include: The Balmoral Hotel, Thistle Hotel, Stirling Highland Hotel, Royal George Hotel and Poppies Hotel. Visit Scotland (2010) studies show that Hotels remain the preferred accommodation for international tourists. The places they will visit on this 6-day tour of Scotland will include two of the major cities: Edinburgh and Glasgow. Also Stirling, Crieff and Callander will be included in the tour. They will experience our way of life whilst living in a tenement building, to visiting some of our fine art galleries. We have also included in the tours some of our fine whisky distilleries to experience Scotlands famous drink and whilst they are having fun during the day, they will also experience Scottish entertainment at its best! This will include Scottish pipe music, Celidh, Poetry and a concert involving Accordions and fiddles. Whilst the International tourists will be entertained by Scotlands well-known attractions such as Edinburgh Castle, Royal Mile, Sir Walter Scotts House and Stirling Castle, they will be able to luxuriate in Scottish cuisine throughout their stay and find out how it feels to be Scottish! The hotels they will be staying in will be no less than 3 stars and they will be situated in the areas of interest to suit the tours to make them run as smoothly as possible. This complies with the Green Tourism Business Scheme, which is the national sustainable tourism certification scheme for the UK. All the hotels are members of this scheme. Justification of why this product should be produced This product should be produced as Scotland doesnt have a company like Saltire Tours. There is certainly Coach Tours available but none are specifically tailored down to fine detail like our business will produce. Our consumers will experience everything there is to love about Scotland from experiencing the food, scenery, culture; they will certainly know what its like to feel like a true Scot by the end of their holiday. Another reason is that not many companies offer a carefree holiday in Scotland where all their needs are met and international tourists will not know where to start on experiencing Scotland. Saltire Tours will organise everything from accommodation, transport, attractions, wining and dining to evening entertainment as a package holiday price making sure what is included is only the best and relevant to international tourists that wish to experience Scottish Culture.